Owen R. Thornton, UNC Chapel Hill, 2025

The Motivational Architecture of Success in Ultrarunning: A Systematic Review

This systematic review pulls together a decade of research to outline what truly predicts ultrarunning success. It shows that finishers share a psychological trio, mental toughness, self-efficacy, and emotional intelligence, that helps them regulate emotions, solve problems, and maintain stable mood under profound stress. Motivation in ultrarunning proves to be overwhelmingly intrinsic: runners pursue meaning, identity, and affiliation more than medals or times. Motivation evolves with experience, shifting from achievement goals (“prove something”) toward existential identity (“this is who I am”). The review also highlights a dark side: when motivation comes from escapism or compulsive coping, athletes experience higher burnout and dropout rates. Finally, it identifies a big field-wide blind spot, almost no research connects psychological state with pacing and nutrition decisions, even though those decisions determine performance outcomes.

Practical takeaways
– Train your inner architecture. Mental toughness isn’t “grit your teeth.” It’s the integration of:
• EI: noticing when you’re spiraling;
• SE: believing you can solve the problem;
• MT: staying engaged long enough to actually solve it.
– Mood stability is a performance skill. Emotional swings correlate strongly with DNFs. Tools like reframing, micro-goaling, music, or mindful check-ins are race-saving strategy.
– Social support helps you finish. Crews/pacers function as external cognition when your brain stops braining. Don’t avoid help, that’s the number-one trait associated with DNFs.
– Your “why” matters. Adaptive motives (growth, challenge, meaning) lead to resilience. Maladaptive motives (escape, perfectionism, fear) correlate with burnout and compulsive patterns.
– Your motivation will change – let it. Experienced runners naturally shift from “achieve something” to “belong somewhere/express who I am.” Treat this as healthy evolution, not loss of ambition. High motivation ≠ healthy motivation. The line between passion and pathology is remarkably thin in ultras.

This review feels like a psychological mirror for the Waybound philosophy. It reinforces our emphasis on mindset-first training, presence, adaptability, emotional regulation, and sustainable identity-building rather than achievement obsession. The community-as-cognition insight also aligns with my ethos: running is never done alone. It reminds us to coach athletes toward adaptive motives: running toward something meaningful, not merely away from discomforts in life.
– We coach motivation. Help athletes articulate adaptive motivations and flag maladaptive ones early.
– Build emotional regulation into training plans: RPE check-ins, decision-making drills, post-run reflection prompts.
– Practice distributed cognition: Rehearse scripts for when cognitive load collapses.
– Target self-efficacy intentionally: strategic workouts, small wins, predictable progressions.
– Normalize the identity shift: When athletes evolve from time goals to meaning goals, treat it as maturity, not drift.

Owen R. Thornton, UNC Chapel Hill, 2025

Emotional Intelligence as a Cornerstone of Success in Ultrarunning

This paper dives deeper into emotional intelligence (EI) and argues that ultrarunning success depends heavily on the ability to perceive, understand, regulate, and use emotions. Because ultras push athletes into prolonged physical decline, mood volatility, pain, sleep disruption, and decision-making under duress, EI may function as a core performance skill. The author synthesizes meta-analyses (showing small but reliable links between EI and performance) with research on the unique psychological profile of ultrarunners; high conscientiousness, emotional stability, motivation, and mental toughness. The study proposes four pathways through which EI fuels ultra performance: supporting resilience, regulating in-race emotional states, enabling adaptive coping and pain perception, and sustaining long-term training adherence. Importantly, the paper argues existing studies suffer from overreliance on self-report, cross-sectional design, and lack of mechanistic testing, meaning we haven’t measured the real thing yet. People think they are emotionally intelligent. The sport tends to expose who is and who isn’t.

Practical takeaways
– Treat EI as trainable “psychological fitness.” Skills like emotional awareness, cognitive reframing, and attentional control can be practiced.
– The best runners regulate early. Emotional spirals (frustration, panic, despair) are energy sinks; EI acts like psychological fuel efficiency.
– Pain isn’t the enemy, your interpretation is. High-EI runners reframe pain (“this is effort,” not “this is injury”) and stay in goal-aligned self-talk.
– Know the source of the bad feeling. EI helps you distinguish between glycogen low, sleep low, fear, over-pacing, catastrophizing, etc.
– Train “emotional pacing.” Just like you pace your legs, you should pace your mind—calm early, responsive mid-race, tactical late.

The mind is not decorative; it is structural. Ultras reward athletes who can meet themselves honestly, regulate internal chaos, and use emotion as information. Noticing before reacting, responding instead of spiraling, and cultivating curiosity toward discomfort. This strengthens our rationale for: intentional psychological skills training (journaling, reframing drills, awareness cues); pre-planned scripts for low emotional states; using long runs as EI practice; rehearsing decision-making under fatigue, and; normalizing emotional variability in logs and communication.

This research implicitly critiques a data-centric endurance culture obsessed with “objective metrics.” EI introduces a form of relational, experiential knowledge that resists quantification. It reminds us that psychological experiences (fear, boredom, despair, hope) are not noise in the data; they are important data that shape outcomes.

Owen R. Thornton, 2025 (Narrative Review)

Ultrarunning as a Model for Neuroplasticity: A Review of Structural, Functional, and Neurobiological Adaptations

This narrative review explores how ultrarunning changes the human brain, contrasting the chronic adaptations from training with the acute insults of racing. Chronic training upregulates BDNF (“Miracle-Gro for neurons”), enlarges hippocampal structures, increases functional connectivity, and builds a more stress-resilient HPA axis. In contrast, the race itself temporarily impairs cognition, alters brain volume in opposite directions depending on event duration, and triggers massive inflammation, cortisol spikes, and central fatigue. Ultra’s of <24–48h tend to show temporary gray matter increases (likely fluid shifts), while extreme multi-day races (e.g., 4,487 km) show a 6% global gray matter decrease, a reversible catabolic effect that normalizes months later. The review argues that the acute damage is the catalyst for the long-term resilience, creating a “stress inoculation” effect that makes ultrarunners cognitively and emotionally tougher over time.

Practical takeaways
– Your brain adapts like a muscle. Consistent aerobic work increases BDNF, hippocampal volume, and functional connectivity, meaning training literally builds brain tissue and cognitive resilience.
– Ultras will likely make you temporarily dumber. Slower reaction time, poorer decision-making, and fuzzy executive function during and after races are normal physiological consequences, not signs of weakness or lack of grit.
– Sleep deprivation is one of the biggest cognitive risks in ultras. It meaningfully degrades motor control and decision-making.
– “Mental toughness” you feel is real neuroplastic change. Repeated exposure to controlled stressors trains both emotional regulation and HPA-axis stability; your stress response becomes more efficient.
– Long-term health requires respecting recovery. The brain may be reallocating BDNF to damaged muscles, which means early post-race cognitive fog is a survival mechanism.

As a coach I like to emphasize that toughness is not heroic. It’s plasticity earned through repeated experiences of manageable stress. I teach athletes that “my brain is melting” is expected, and nothing to do with your character. We don’t jump from 3h long runs to 20h race goals. The brain needs graded exposure. For multi-day efforts, we practice micro-sleeps and sleep strategies in training. Visualization, reframing, interoception work all map onto neurobiological processes described in the paper.

Owen R. Thornton, UNC Chapel Hill, 2025

Trail Running as a Therapeutic Modality: A Meta-Analytic Review of its Efficacy in Anxiety Management and Resilience Building
This meta-analytic report examines whether trail running, and green exercise more broadly, meaningfully improves anxiety, depression, resilience, and overall well-being. The author synthesizes dozens of studies, finding large effects for anxiety and depression reduction in nature-based interventions, moderate improvements in mental toughness and resilience among trail runners, and strong qualitative evidence of therapeutic benefits. The review also explains how these benefits emerge: mindfulness induced by technical terrain, flow states, self-efficacy built through mastery, and neurobiological changes like cortisol reduction and endocannabinoid release. However, it stresses a major caveat: most primary studies suffer from small sample sizes, weak controls, and high risk of bias. Still, the convergence of evidence (psychological, physiological, cultural) strongly points toward trail running as a potent tool for mental health.

Practical takeaways
– Trail technicality = forced mindfulness. Uneven terrain pulls attention into the present , reducing rumination and creating a built-in moving meditation. You can think about using techy trails on overwhelming days, and smoother surfaces on processing days.
– Flow is easier on trails. The sweet spot between challenge and skill turns trail running into an autotelic (“the run is the reward”) experience. For athletes: choose trails that are interesting but not terrifying.
– Mastery builds resilience. Repeatedly overcoming trail-specific challenges (steep climbs, rocky descents, weather—creates transferable confidence.
– Nature amplifies exercise’s antidepressant effects. The combination of movement + wildness increases mood-lifting neurochemistry. Even 30–60 min. outdoors can meaningfully reduce anxiety.
– Therapeutic runners succeed by process. A non-competitive mindset increases enjoyment and adherence. This is why we sometimes ditch the watch or prescribe “run by feel.”

This study beautifully reinforces my core philosophy: running is a practice of presence, resilience, and meaning-making. It aligns with our shift from grind culture to curiosity-based training, where enjoyment, emotion, and identity matter as much as pace charts. The findings on self-efficacy and flow directly map onto our coaching strategies: celebrating small wins, designing stress in digestible pieces, using the environment. Importantly, the paper’s emphasizes how science guides us, but the lived experience (what the athlete feels, notices, and becomes) remains the gold standard. Other coaching implications
– The study reminds us that endurance athletes can still experience high anxiety and risk for compulsive training. Periodic mental check-ins are essential.
– Use progressive trail difficulty to create safe mastery experiences instead of accidental overwhelm.
– Encourage to check in with mood, grounding, and presence.
– Cue foot placement awareness, breath rhythms, sensory noticing.

Owen R. Thornton, UNC Chapel Hill, 2025

The Psychology of Competitive Exchange in Ultramarathons: Managing Being Passed & Making Effective Passes
This next banger of a paper examines why being passed and passing others can feel disproportionately stressful in ultra’s, and how these moments can shape performance more than athletes realize. Drawing on research about competitive anxiety, ego depletion, pacing science, and mental fatigue, Thornton argues that passing is not a simple physical event but a psychological transaction that can derail or enhance performance depending on the athlete’s mindset. According to this study, the first half of an ultra should be run with strict internal pacing, treating passes as irrelevant or even beneficial. The second half can shift to a more active-competitive mindset, using other runners as “targets” to maintain motivation. The study provides frameworks and mental strategies such as cognitive reframing, self-talk, visualization, and attentional control to manage the emotional impact of being overtaken and to execute effective passes.

Practical takeaways:
– Being passed is a psychological stressor only if you let it be. Your nervous system interprets being overtaken as a threat, often triggering anxiety, negative self-talk, and inefficient surges. Treat a pass in the first half as information, not judgment: they might be pacing poorly; you’re running your plan.
– The real race begins in the second half, and that’s when passing matters. Science backs this two-phase model (I use a 3 phase model). Passes late in the race are earned by not racing early.
– Build “If–then” race scripts to stop negative spirals. This is a go-to strategy we use, for example: “If I get passed on a climb, then I return to my breathing + form cues.” This interrupts ego threat → anxiety → performance decline.
– Use mental skills deliberately. Motivational self-talk: “smooth and strong.” Instructional self-talk: “quick feet,” “relax shoulders.” Rope/magnet visualization: imagine the runner ahead pulling you along. Gamify: just catch the next person, one at a time.
– Pacing is the foundation for every pass you’ll make. The fastest ultrarunners slow only ~15% from start to finish; everyone else blows up. Passing in the late miles is early discipline.

This study reinforces a lot what I tell athletes constantly: your race is mostly inside your head, not against the person ahead or behind you. Managing competitive interactions is ultimately an act of self-regulation. Not ego protection. When athletes shift from comparison to curiosity (“What is this moment asking of me?”), they stay aligned with their purpose and their plan. Passing is not about domination; it’s about timing, patience, and self-trust. This study has some additional implications worth mentioning: We must train competitive psychology deliberately. For every runner I include scenarios in long runs: imagine being passed, practice reframing, rehearse your “if–then” scripts. Reinforce internal pacing in early race prep; athletes need emotional discipline. Teach runners how to shift gears mentally at mile 60, 80, or 90, from “protect energy” to “use competitors as fuel.” Normalize negative emotions during passes so athletes don’t interpret them as failure.

Owen R. Thornton, UNC Chapel Hill, 2025

The Compounding Mechanisms of Pre-Race Anxiety and Exercise on Gastroesophageal Reflux in Endurance Runners
This paper argues that runners don’t get reflux only because their stomach bounces around or because they ate the wrong oatmeal. Instead, pre-race anxiety biologically “primes” the gut via the brain-gut axis, raising gastric acid, weakening the esophageal barrier, and slowing clearance. Once running starts, mechanical forces (high intra-abdominal pressure, transient LES relaxations) exploit that primed state, producing disproportionately severe reflux. TLESRs happen anyway, but running increases the chance they’ll fire acid upward. Quantitative data show athletes with high pre-race anxiety have 3–4× higher odds of reflux symptoms. Standard treatments like PPIs often fail because they address acid, not the psychological and mechanical drivers. The review proposes a multi-modal treatment model combining nutrition, relaxation training, diaphragmatic breathing, and selective pharmacology.

Practical takeaways
– Your pre-race breakfast matters. A small rise in gastric volume can quadruple acid exposure when running fasted vs fed states.
– PPIs may help… or not. High-anxiety athletes often don’t respond because the issue isn’t just acid, it’s stress physiology and barrier sensitivity.
– Diaphragmatic breathing is biomechanical armor. It increases LES pressure and reduces symptoms more effectively than aerobic training itself. 5–10 minutes daily; it increases LES pressure, which is huge.

In training, I normalize GI training as part of performance prep. GI stability is a skill, not a genetic blessing. Pre-race routines matter more than ever. Anything that reduces sympathetic activation (breathwork, grounding, cue-based relaxation) is now legitimately GI-protective. Practice race-day nutrition under realistic stress. Not just in training, but in training that simulates psychological load. Teach athletes the “triple threat” to avoid: high anxiety + large meals + early-race surges. De-emphasize PPIs unless clinically indicated. They are tools, but not magic.

Owen R. Thornton, UNC Chapel Hill, 2025

The Nourished Mind: A Meta-Analysis of Nutritional–Psychological Synergies in Ultrarunning Performance
In the last intriguing paper Thornton argues that ultra performance is fundamentally a psychological achievement sitting on a nutritional foundation. Mental toughness, resilience, executive function, pain coping, and mood all depend on stable glucose, adequate sodium/fluid balance, and sustainable fueling. Hypoglycemia directly impairs decision-making and emotional regulation; dehydration worsens vigilance and mood; shifts in serotonin–dopamine balance alter motivation and fatigue perception. The gut microbiome may even influence long-term drive to train. The study proposes a “psych-nutritional” race plan where nutrition is treated as cognitive protection.

Practical takeaways
– Carbs = clear thinking. Consuming 30–50gr CHO/hour is framed as neuroprotection, not just energy replacement. If your brain gets foggy, moody, negative, or indecisive it’s usually fueling related.
– Hypoglycemia feels like an existential crisis. That’s blood glucose dropping below ~3.0 mmol/L. Fix it with sugar
– Dehydration mimics anxiety. Even 1–2% bodyweight loss increases tension, irritability, and perceived effort. Drink 450–750 mL/h with sodium (>575 mg/L).
– Protein helps mood & satiety. Adding 5–10g protein/hour can blunt appetite fatigue and smooth mood swings during long efforts
– If-Then cues for race day:
IF you feel irrationally negative → carbs now
IF you feel sleepy + unmotivated → carbs (serotonin/dopamine support)
IF you feel anxious/irritable → check hydration + sodium
IF you feel “full of doom with no reason” → it’s your glucose

Your brain is part of your physiology, and your mindset is inseparable from how you fuel your body. Adaptability, emotional regulation, strategic thinking aren’t abstract traits. They’re emergent properties of stable glucose, hydration, and neurochemistry. It’s not “mind over matter.” It’s “mind depends on matter.”

Owen R. Thornton, UNC Chapel Hill, 2025

Do Speedy-Shoes Make You Feel Speedier? The Biopsychosocial Advantage: Deconstructing the Interplay of Biomechanics and Belief in Carbon-Plated Shoes for Ultrarunning
This report argues that carbon-plated shoes may help ultrarunners less through mechanical performance gains and more through psychological pathways like self-efficacy, expectation, and placebo effects. Thornton reviews the biomechanics behind carbon plates, rocker geometry, and energy-return foams, noting that metabolic benefits (2–4% in marathons) drop sharply at ultrarunning speeds, often to below 1%. He highlights that CPS may instead reduce mechanical load and perceived fatigue, but also introduce injury risks if athletes transition too quickly. The article proposes a “biopsychosocial model” where belief in the shoe’s power interacts with sensations of cushioning and stiffness to boost confidence and effort. Ultimately, the paper reframes CPS as a holistic psychological and mechanical tool rather than a pure performance enhancer. This all can backfire if nocebo effects make you start believing you “need” carbon shoes to race well.

Practical takeaways
– Running economy gains shrink from ~4% in marathon conditions to ~1% or less at typical ultra speeds.
– Feeling faster matters. Confidence, lowered anxiety, the belief you’re using “the right shoe” can meaningfully improve pacing decisions, pain tolerance, and mental resilience.
– CPS may protect legs more than they boost speed. High-stack foams + plates redistribute load and reduce plantar pressures, potentially lowering cumulative muscle damage late in races.
– Rapid adoption is linked to navicular stress injuries and other load-distribution-related issues.

For coaching, this study suggests treating carbon-plated shoes less as a performance upgrade and more as a psychological tool: a confidence enhancer, a leg-preservation aid, and a ritual that supports mindset. We should help athletes test shoes at ultra pace and on race terrain, guide gradual transition to avoid injury, and frame CPS as supportive rather than essential, so the athlete’s belief stays rooted in their training, not their gear. Ultimately, coaches can leverage the psychological lift while still grounding athletes in self-efficacy, terrain-specific decision-making, and durable foot-strength habits.

Thuany et al., Frontiers in Sports & Active Living, 2025

An Analysis of the 6-h Ultramarathon Using a Machine Learning Approach
This study analyzed 117,882 race records from 6-hour ultra’s worldwide to determine which factors best predict running speed. Using an XGBoost machine-learning model, researchers examined the influence of gender, age group, athlete nationality, and race location on performance. The model found that gender was the strongest predictor, followed by nationality, age, and event country. Athletes aged 30–34 were the fastest, while the most common age group was 45–49. European runners (and European race courses) dominated participation and speed. However, the model only explained 21% of performance variability, meaning many key determinants (training load, terrain, pacing, weather, etc.) were not captured.

This study’s strength is its huge dataset and the novel use of machine learning to interpret large-scale participation trends. But it suffers from classic limitations of big-data endurance research: no control for terrain, weather, training load, athlete history, footwear, pacing strategies, altitude, or motivation—all massive predictors of ultra performance. The high correlation between nationality and race location also inflates the appearance of “European dominance.” The low R² shows the model is better for describing population-level patterns than providing meaningful predictions.